How to Choose a Grad School

What graduate programs will you apply to? Selecting a graduate school entails many considerations. Its not just a matter of determining your field of study - graduate programs in a given discipline may vary widely. Graduate programs differ in academics but also in training philosophies and emphases. In deciding where to apply, consider your own goals and directions as well as your resources. Consider the following: Basic DemographicsOnce you know your area of study and desired degree, the most basic considerations in selecting graduate programs to which to apply are location and cost. Many faculty will tell you to not be choosy about geographic location (and if you want the best shot of getting accepted you should apply far and wide) but remember that you will spend several years in graduate school. Be aware of your own preferences as you consider graduate programs. Program GoalsNot all graduate programs in a given area, like clinical psychology, for example, are the same. Programs often have different emphases and goals. Study program materials to learn about faculty and program priorities. Are students trained to produce theory or research? Are they trained for careers in academia or the real world? Are students encouraged to apply findings outside of academic contexts? This information is hard to come by and must be inferred by studying faculty interests and activities as well as examining the curriculum and requirements. Do you find the classes and curriculum interesting? FacultyWho are the faculty? What are their areas of expertise? Are they distinguished? Are they all about to retire? Do they publish with students? Can you see yourself working any of them, preferably more than one? There are many things to consider when choosing graduate programs to which to apply. It may seem time intensive and overwhelming, but putting in the time to carefully select graduate programs will make it easier later on when you are accepted and must decide where to attend -- that decision is much more challenging.

Racial Discrimination Kept Black People from Flying in Air...

Colin Powell once observed that â€Å"a dream doesn’t become reality through magic, it takes sweat, determination, and hard work.† This principle is mirrored dramatically in the story of African Americans in aerospace history. The invention of the airplane in the first decade of the twentieth century sparked a revolution in modern technology. This new realm of powered flight rapidly altered modes of travel and recast the conduct of warfare. Aviation in the popular mind became associated with adventure and heroism. For African Americans, however, this exciting new realm of flying remained off-limits from the consequence of racial discrimination. Many African Americans displayed a keen interest in the new air age, but found themselves†¦show more content†¦To generate some possible answers one idea is that racism is still at work. Major Tony Whiteside states that there are some personnel who share their discrimination but they are not a reflection of the wh ole image that is produced. He counters racism in the military by stating that the individual who is an â€Å"obstacle to overcome, there are ten other people who want to help black pilots,† in specific. However cases like this are not like this all the time. First Lieutenant Richard Jones exclaimed that he has actually been â€Å"embraced by his fellow comrades and instructors and that he has been treated in a respective manner.† So the least to say black pilots today are not facing racism in its entirety on becoming a pilot. They do not feel a sense of not being accepted into this prestigious community nor do they have any special pressure to prove themselves competent when they are challenged with a new task. Apparently, instructor pilots look at them in one way and that is by seeing if they are a good pilot. So if racism is not the problem then what is? The cause of this issue may be from a paradox at a higher level: the dearth supply of black officers in the Air Force and Navy. 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Potential Of Educational Standards Education Essay Free Essays

The grounds for the survey were outlined in the prologue. In this subdivision the purposes thereof are explained and a motive for the research is provided. This stage expounds the research methodological analysiss adopted and provides the motive and justification for the pick of research methodological analysis every bit good as a description of the nature and character of action research. We will write a custom essay sample on Potential Of Educational Standards Education Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The research doctrine is explored and the methods of roll uping informations discussed. I was fortunate to be presented with an chance to develop an educational programme which would ensue in the publicity of four black supervisors to direction places. This led to an exploratory and experimental procedure that addressed the research job: How to plan and present a direction instruction and development programme for people who did non hold the needed educational makings to inscribe for formal direction programmes at a third establishment. This, in bend, translated into the undermentioned research inquiries? Do people without the necessary educational criterions have the possible and the ability to go effectual directors? What cognition, accomplishments and attitudes are necessary to be an effectual director and how are these cognition, accomplishments and attitudes best acquired in a workplace? Research purpose The purpose was to better my pattern through the design and execution of a non-traditional direction instruction programme. While at the same clip, righting some of the instabilities ensuing from historical political prejudice that had deprived many black people of the chance to carry through their managerial potency and in so making do a meaningful part to four people ‘s lives. It was besides intended to do a part to direction development, concern betterment and socio-economic transmutation. Research aims In trying a undertaking of this nature, there were many obstructions and jobs to confront that were both complex and sensitive and I needed a clear apprehension of what I planned to accomplish through carry oning the research survey. These aims would besides hopefully separate this research undertaking from â€Å" masqueraded consulting † ( Eriksson A ; Kovalainen, 2008:204 ) After careful consideration, the undermentioned list of aims were identified for the survey: Investigate premises and patterns that I thought needed to be challenged ; Develop an apprehension of the construct of instruction and in peculiar grownup instruction and how it relates to larning in a workplace ; Explore and experiment with course of study design for a non-traditional emancipatory direction instruction procedure in a workplace ; Implement the procedure and happen possible barriers to implementation in order to better and alter the bing state of affairs ; Bringing approximately positive transmutation ; and Gain professional cognition. Aim of the survey The motive to accept the challenge was based on the premise that direction accomplishments and leading behavior can be developed through relevant preparation and expert guided experience and the strong belief that willing and able non-managerial Black employees can and should be developed to travel into direction places. The purpose of the survey was hence to develop and present a feasible and sustainable method of grownup instruction for the development and promotion of four black female supervisors to direction places, by: Locating the programme in values of equality and justness with regard for human self-respect ; Approaching grownup instruction in such a manner that the participants would be involved in their ain acquisition experience ; Identifying the practical deductions of presenting the invention into a specific workplace and implementing the programme ; and Measuring the programme, with peculiar mention to its relevancy to the participants and their alteration in behavior. From the literature reviews discussed subsequently in the survey, there appeared to be a wide consensus that larning and organizational alteration require a scope of development, preparation and acquisition attacks ; that the traditional external class, while moderately effectual as a briefing device for advancing consciousness, is hapless at advancing behavioral and organizational alteration ; that alteration is more likely to be achieved via techniques specifically aimed at peculiar larning marks related to the person ‘s practical undertakings and experience ; and that development, preparation and coaching should, when appropriate, take topographic point as stopping point to the work state of affairs as possible. This meant that for the invention to win the company had to accommodate and aline itself both structurally and culturally to altering fortunes and new attacks, which resulted in the add-on of the undermentioned standards: Involving the whole administration in the procedure, utilizing a systems attack, and turn toing issues of socialization, civilizations, values, attitudes and perceptual experiences. THE Setting The survey was conducted in a fabrication company in Gauteng, in South Africa. It is the most advanced metropolitan part in the state and the industrial hub. Although it covers less than two per centum of South Africa ‘s entire land mass it contributes more than 50 per centum of Gross Domestic Product and accommodates about one one-fourth of the entire population ( De Beer, 1990 ) . The town in which the mill was situated was populated by preponderantly Afrikaans talking White people and in 1994 was a Conservative Party fastness. Until the early 90s a curfew bell was still sounded at 9pm every eventide to guarantee that the town remained ‘White by dark ‘ . The direction instruction programme was implemented in a fabrication administration. It is a in private owned company that employed about 80 people and had a turnover in surplus of five million Rand per annum in 1994. The fabrication procedure is complicated and labour intensive with most phases of production necessitating a skilled labor force. The chosen trainees were all Black females with formal instruction degrees runing from class 9 to rate 12. Unfortunately even the two ladies with a matriculation certification were unable to derive entry to third establishments as the topics they had completed were non recognised for higher acquisition, for illustration Bible Studies and Agriculture. All of them were loyal employees who had at least 15 old ages of work experience in the company and all were employed in a supervisory capacity. Their elected wise mans and managers were both White males. The Factory / Production Manager had a sheepskin in Production Management and a figure of old ages of production and direction experience. The General Manager had an undergraduate commercialism grade and many old ages of direction experience, but had non been actively involved in the production procedure and was more concerned with the administrative elements of the company. Unlike many research workers who enter new and unusual research environments, I had ready entree to the site and was fortunate plenty to be familiar with the people involved in the research procedure and the workplace scene. This made my entry into the state of affairs comparatively easy as I did non hold to confront the debatable state of affairs of acquiring to cognize the participants or the workplace environment. However, on contemplation this factor created a new set of complexnesss and jobs. RESEARCH APPROACH Choice of methodological analysis I am of the sentiment that given the research involvements, inquiries, purposes and aims of this qualitative survey together with my theoretical position that action research was an appropriate attack. My multiple and frequently complex functions of adviser, facilitator, instructor and scholar, and ‘objective ‘ research worker in the survey were a possible quandary, nevertheless, this was resolved by following an action research methodological analysis. This determination is substantiated by Eriksson A ; Kovalainen who province that: It is of import to understand that, in action research, there is no large difference between the research worker and the researched group aˆÂ ¦ Often the differences between the research worker and direction adviser diminish and even disappear, as academic research is geared towards accomplishing apprehension of real-life jobs related to concern activities and bring forthing alteration procedures and solutions for the job ( 2008:194 ) Action research differs from conventional or traditional research because as Coghlan and Brannick assert it focuses upon â€Å" research in action, instead than research about action † ( 2005:4 ) . The other distinguishing characteristic of action research is that it does non put the doctorial pupil as research worker in an â€Å" aˆÂ ¦external ‘objective ‘ function but alternatively locates her within the research puting to research whether the rhythms of intercessions chosen really work to alter the debatable state of affairs to which the research job is addressed † ( Greenwood A ; Levin, 2007 cited in Grogan, Donaldson A ; Simmons, 2007:6 ) . The experimental nature of the research undertaking besides required an alternate attack to more traditional qualitative research. Eriksson and Kovalainen suggests that â€Å" action research is specifically utile when researching procedure related jobs in organisations, such as acquisition and alteration † ( 2008:199 ) . They further assert that: Action research is thought to be particularly suited when the research inquiry is related to depicting an unfolding series of actions that are taking topographic point over clip in a certain group aˆÂ ¦ Besides, if the research inquiry is related to understanding the procedure of alteration, development or betterment of some existent job, so, in order to larn from it, action research is an appropriate application for research ( 2008:193-194 ) Corey states that the value of traditional research is â€Å" determined by the sum of reliable cognition it adds † , while that of action research â€Å" is determined chiefly by the extent to which findings lead to betterment in the patterns of people engaged in the research † ( 1953:13 ) . This is confirmed by Carr and Kemmis, who assert that â€Å" aˆÂ ¦the testing land for educational research is non its theoretical edification or its ability to conform to standards derived from societal scientific disciplines, but instead its capacity to decide educational jobs and better educational pattern † ( 1986:109 ) . Action Research For some readers the construct of action research will be portion of their pattern, for others it may look a unusual attack to research. As action research does non needfully do a immense difference between research and action, it may give an imprecise and ill-defined feeling of research as a procedure. It can be argued that it is exactly here where action research has its power: when it remains ‘close ‘ to its research objects and is based on mutual activities, when done decently, it can besides authorise its participants, non merely the scientific discipline community ( Eriksson A ; Kovalainen, 2008:202-203 ) Action Research has been widely used to better pattern in educational scenes ( Carr and Kemmis, 1986:162 ) . It is acknowledged as â€Å" an appropriate research paradigm for educational, professional, managerial and organizational development † ( Zuber-Skerritt, 1996:3 ) and was the merely obvious pick of methodological analysis for this survey. As a methodological analysis action research is based on alternate research paradigms. There is no universally accepted definition of action research in literature and there are a assortment of action research theoretical accounts available. As Nofke asserts there has been â€Å" aˆÂ ¦exceptional growing in the extent of action research patterns † and we should besides be cognizant of the â€Å" aˆÂ ¦proliferation of significances and utilizations of the term action research † ( 1994:9 ) Those of us in South Africa interested in action research recognise that there are contested points of position about what ‘action research ‘ agencies and what patterns constitute it. aˆÂ ¦ It is the acknowledgment of the potency of action research as informed, automatic and transformative action, nevertheless, that holds sway ( Walker, 1988:153 ) . Whitehead and McNiff suggest that most of the action research literature negotiations about bettering pattern, but negotiations less about bettering acquisition as the footing of improved pattern, and even less about how this should be seen as new theory and an of import part to the universe of thoughts. They believe that theory itself needs to be reconceptualised, non as an abstract, apparently esoteric field of survey, but as a practical manner of believing about societal personal businesss and how they can be improved ( 2006:8 ) . The beginnings of action research can be found in the instructions of Marx, Gramsci and Freire who were engaged in altering societal constructions and patterns for the benefit of those who had been oppressed or marginalised by the position quo ( Reason A ; Bradbury, 2001 ) . Lewin is credited with gestating action research which was so farther developed by Kolb ( 1984 ) , Carr and Kemmis ( 1986 ) and others. Historically Revans ( 1986 ) is its recognized title-holder. Pulling from the work of Jean Piaget, Revans contended that larning â€Å" stems from responsible experience † ( 1982:2 ) , that is, â€Å" all acquisition is the merchandise of action † ( 1982:772 ) . Action research spiral Lewin ‘s action research spiral, is described as follows by Lewin cited in Burgess ( 1985:162 ) : The first measure is to analyze the thought carefully in the visible radiation of the agencies available. Frequently more investigative about the state of affairs is required. If this first period of planning is successful, two points emerge: viz. , ‘an overall program ‘ of how to make the aim and secondly, a determination in respect to the first measure of action. Normally this planning has besides slightly modified the original thought ( Lewin, 1948:205 ) . The following measure is composed of a circle of planning, put to deathing, and reconnaissance or fact happening for the intent of measuring the consequences of the 2nd measure, and fixing the rational footing for be aftering the 3rd measure, and for possibly modifying once more the overall program ( 1948:206 ) . To assist cover with the issues refering the nature of direction development, course of study development and grownup instruction in a structured, yet flexible, mode Lewin ‘s ( 1946 ) action research spiral was used as a theoretical account. Initially, I had non considered utilizing the attack to carry on a research survey but instead to utilize the action research spiral as a theoretical account to help with the design and bringing of an experimental direction instruction programme because of its iterative nature and accent on continual betterment. Lewin ‘s theoretical account specifies a spiral of activities in the undermentioned sequence: Clarifying and naming a job state of affairs for pattern ; Explicating action schemes for deciding the job ; Implementing and measuring the action schemes ; and Further elucidation and diagnosing of the job ( and so into the following spiral of contemplation and action ) . Lewin ‘s coiling recognises the demand for action programs to be flexible. In complex societal state of affairss it is ne’er possible to expect everything that needs to be done and in this theoretical account the deliberate imbrication of action and contemplation allow alterations in programs for action as the participants learn from and reflect on their ain experience. The procedure is summarised in the diagram of an action research coiling below. Upward spiral of bettering practiceFIGURE 1: Action research spiral Beginning: hypertext transfer protocol: //education.qld.gov.au/students/advocacy/equity/gendersch/action.html My apprehension of the action research procedure, based on Lewin ‘s attack, was that action is followed by critical contemplation: – What worked? What did non work? What did we larn? How should we make it otherwise following clip? Once apprehension was achieved, decisions drawn and programs refined or new programs developed so these were once more tested in action. This tied in with the well established larning theory of Kolb and Fry ( 1975:35-36 ) which suggests that persons pass through a rhythm of phases in the learning experience: A period of observation ; A period of contemplation ; A period of conceptual modeling ; and A period of active testing. Therefore the completion of the acquisition procedure will affect several rhythms and may in fact ne’er terminal. Based on the above, I envisaged a procedure where myself and the other participants in the programme developed a program of action ; acted to implement the program ; observed the effects of the action in the context in which it occurred ; reflected on these effects as a footing for farther planning, subsequent action and so on through a sequence of rhythms. This allowed for a flexible course of study that could be modified as the programme progressed and invariably evaluated and altered in footings of its relevancy to the programme ‘s purposes. This initial theoretical account was excessively simple as in world, life does non travel â€Å" along one path at a clip aˆÂ ¦ † ( McNiff, 1988:28 ) and Susman and Evered ‘s ( 1978 ) more complex representational theoretical account reproduced below, better fitted the survey. FIGURE 2: The cyclical procedure of action research Beginning: Susman A ; Evered, 1978:582-603 in Administrative Science Quarterly This impression concurs with that of Walker ( 1993:107 ) who finds that the attractive force of action research lies exactly in the ne’er stoping spiral of action, contemplation, enquiry and speculating originating from and grounded in practical concerns, where the hunt is non for the right replies but towards â€Å" practical wisdom aˆÂ ¦ in peculiar, complex and human state of affairss † ( Elliott, 1991:52 ) . Lau ( 1998 ) discusses the standards which Checkland ( 1991 ) believes are indispensable for an action research survey to be accepted as a legitimate option to the more traditional methods. These standards served as a guideline to my ain action research: There is a real-world job relevant to the research subjects of involvement to the research worker ; Respective functions of the research worker and participants are defined in the job state of affairs ; Inclusion of an rational model by agencies of which the nature of research lessons can be defined and the method in which the model is embodied ; Researcher engagement in blossoming the state of affairs with a position to assist convey about alterations deemed betterments ; Rethinking of earlier phases by doing sense of the accumulating experience through the declared model and method, and revising alterations ; and Point of issue for the research worker in order to reexamine the experience and to pull out lessons for larning in relation to the research themes and/or definition of new subjects ( 1991:397-403 ) . Action research includes action larning which Zuber-Skerritt defines as: Learning from concrete experience and critical contemplation on that experience, through group treatment, test and mistake, find and larning from one another ( 1993:45 ) . The narrative stating attack Harmonizing to Eriksson A ; Kovalainen, in action research The research workers have full academic ‘freedom ‘ to utilize any stylistic elements they wish and frequently the descriptive anthropology and narrative signifiers are besides used in composing the action research studies ( 2008:207 ) Based on Elliott ‘s statement that action research workers should utilize a instance survey attack and that research studies should take a narrative signifier based on analytic memos and following a historical format: â€Å" stating the narrative as it has unfolded over clip † ( 1991:88 ) , elements of instance survey scheme were adopted in the experimental research stage and elements from a narrative attack with an ethnographic focal point, were used in the thesis as the manner for documenting the survey ( www.Infed.org/research ) . It is of import to observe that, unlike research workers utilizing other qualitative attacks and methods such as instance survey research or descriptive anthropology who tend to be interested perceivers, in this survey I was an active participant ( Myers, 2008:57 ) . Using elements of a narrative attack to direction and educational research can be described within the context of the post-modern, which gave me the freedom as writer/researcher to be personally present in the text as opposed to being the 3rd individual composing in a inactive voice, the traditionally needed ‘objective ‘ research worker. Dane asserts that â€Å" research is an activity, and an active voice conveys that impression † ( 1990:214 ) , this is substantiated by Van Maanen ( 1988, cited in Sikes A ; Gale, 2006 ) who suggests that by composing in an active voice ( confessional narrative ) the research worker ‘tells it as it was ‘ instead than following traditional, formulaic and ‘objective ‘ constructions that tell of neat, tidy, elementary research undertakings. The usage of a descriptive narrative of the journey allowed me to capture the socio-cultural scene in which the acquisition occurred and helped â€Å" aˆÂ ¦make expressed some of the inexplicit cognition used to understand and implement the intercession † ( Hoadley, 2002: 2 ) . For most people, storytelling is a natural manner of telling experience, a practical solution to a cardinal job in life, making sensible order out of experience ( Moen, 2006:2 ) . In this thesis I adopted a multi-voiced coverage manner, where the positions and looks of all the participants were incorporated into my narrative. Their voices are actively heard in Phase 7 and 8 where infusions from their written and unwritten informations are reproduced verbatim. On completion of the bill of exchange, this study was given to them to read and formalize and this factor influenced the manner of composing used. RESEARCH DESIGN Research Doctrine A research worker ‘s scientific beliefs or research doctrine is influenced by the research worker ‘s societal intent or what he/she wants to accomplish in the societal universe and why. Harmonizing to Whitehead and McNiff: A strong relationship exists between what you hope to accomplish in footings of your being as a human being and your ontological, epistemic and methodological premises, which can act upon each other and transform each other ( 2006:24 ) . They besides suggest that: Where research traditions differ is how they perceive the placement of the research worker ( ontological committednesss ) , the relationship between the apprehender and what is known ( epistemic committednesss ) , the procedures of bring forthing cognition ( methodological committednesss ) , and the ends of research in footings of how the cognition will be used ( societal committednesss ) ( 2006:22 ) . Ontology Ontology refers to a theory of being, which influences how we perceive ourselves in relation to our environment ( Whitehead A ; McNiff 2006:10 ) . Action research aims to lend both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate debatable state of affairs and to the ends of societal scientific discipline by joint coaction within a reciprocally acceptable ethical model ( Rapoport, 1970: 499 ) . This can be seen as debatable in the coverage phase because The boundaries between people begin to fade out, as people see themselves as united in a common enterprise to better their ain fortunes and inquiries can originate about who tells the research narrative, whose voice is heard, and who speaks on behalf of whom ( Whitehead A ; McNiff 2006:11 ) . A participative and subjective attack to research is hence built-in in action research and as Burr argues, objectiveness is: an impossibleness, since each of us, of necessity, must meet the universe from some position or other ( from where we stand ) and the inquiries we come to inquire about that universe, our theories and hypothesis, must besides of necessity arise from the premises that are embedded in our position † . She continues by stating that â€Å" The undertaking of research workers hence becomes to admit and even to work with their ain intrinsic engagement in the research procedure and the portion this plays in the consequences that are produced. Research workers must see the research procedure as needfully a co-production between themselves and the people they are researching ( 1995:160 cited in Colombo, 2003 ) . Due to my active engagement in the survey, I acknowledge the built-in subjectiveness of this survey every bit good as the impact it has had on both the procedure and the results of this research. As I reviewed my personal diaries and field notes my ain emotional reaction to certain events and people was apparent and sometimes contradictory interior voices emerged, some of these have been included in the text. However, I subscribe to Whitehead ‘s theory of the single ‘I ‘ which is ever seen to be in company with other single ‘I ‘s ‘ , where significances and committednesss flow between lives, and people perceive themselves non as separate entities, though still alone persons, but as sharing the same life infinite as others ( Rayner 2002 ; 2003 ; Whitehead 2005 ) . Epistemology Epistemology ( Whitehead A ; McNiff 2006:23 ) refers to a theory of cognition, which involves two parts: A theory of cognition ( what is known ) ; and A theory of cognition acquisition ( how it becomes known ) Heron ( 1981 ; 1982 ) suggests that action research implies that cognition includes multiple ways of knowing and that the epistemology of action research should include: Propositional cognizing – based on theories or received wisdom ; Experimental knowledge – gained through the direct brush with people, topographic points or things ; Practical knowledge – gained through the making of things ; and Presentational knowledge – gained by telling our silent experiential cognition into forms. Harmonizing to Carr and Kemmis ( 1986:42 ) instructors ( in my instance a facilitator of an educational procedure ) have professional common-sense cognition. In add-on, they have thoughts about educational theory, a philosophical mentality, and societal and moral theories. Knowledge has the capacity to alter as cognition and thought alterations, hence, on the footing of this reflexiveness or capacity to alter, new signifiers of societal life can be created or reconstructed. Action research is based on the epistemic premise that the intent of action research and discourse is non merely to depict, understand and explicate the universe but besides to alter it ( Reason A ; Torbett, 2001 ) . Goodson and Walker province that â€Å" the undertaking of research is to do sense of what we know ( 1991:107 ) † and the sense we make is determined by the choice and political relations of our attack. In this survey, a brooding procedure inherent in action research was used for sense-making or doing silent cognition explicit. This sense-making was introduced to the reader through a description of how the undertaking was conceived, what was intended, the rhythms of action throughout the procedure and an analysis of both the intended and unintended results. When reexamining my epistemic stance the remark by Whitehead and McNiff was peculiarly disposed. They province that in action research â€Å" cognition is created, non discovered. This is normally a procedure of test and mistake. Probationary replies, and the procedure itself, are ever unfastened to review † ( 2006:27 ) . Methodological premises Methodologies refer to the manner that research is conducted. I found the undermentioned paragraph from Whitehead and McNiff utile in this respect and the methodological analysis used in this survey has been guided by these premises. Unlike traditional societal scientific discipline, action questions do non take for closing, nor do practicians anticipate to happen certain replies. The procedure itself is the methodological analysis ( Mellor 1998 ) , and is often untidy, haphazard and experimental. Richard Winter ( 1998 ) negotiations about ‘improvisatory self-fulfillment in action research ‘ , where a certain grade of entrepreneurialism is involved ; and Marian Dadds and Susan Hart ( 2001 ) talk about ‘methodological ingeniousness ‘ , where we try multiple advanced ways until we find the 1 that is right for us. We look out for what might be a utile manner forward, and seek it out. One measure leads to another, and one rhythm of action-reflection leads to another. ( aˆÂ ¦ ) Traditional ways of making research offer a completed narrative. Action research workers let their ain narrative evolve. It is every bit much about the narrator as about the narrative ( Whitehead A ; McNiff 2006:30 ) . Ethical considerations Soltis believes that research workers should detect the ‘non-negotiable ‘ values of â€Å" honestness, equity, regard for individuals and beneficence † ( 1989:129 ) . This ties in with one of the purposes of the survey of ‘locating the programme in values of equality and justness with regard for human self-respect ‘ . In pattern this meant being unfastened and honest about the research, its intent and application ; obtaining informed consent from the participants in the procedure and guaranting them of their right to retreat from the procedure at any clip without punishment. It besides meant non harming the company or participants and if possible, go forthing them in a better place. The research procedure and findings were guided by the ethical consideration of protecting participants ‘ individualities and obtaining permission to utilize their personal development diaries and other paperss owned by them, every bit good as obtaining participant proof of this thesis. The purpose of action research is to better and affect. To better meant alteration that was non ever comfy for the participants and throughout the survey I endeavoured to adhere to the ideal that everybody has the right to move, the right to be heard and the right to take. Data Collection Hussey and Hussey province that, â€Å" Whatever the intent of the research, empirical grounds is required. They define empirical grounds as, â€Å" informations based on observation or experience † ( 1997:10 ) . Harmonizing to Eriksson A ; Kovalainen One of the challenges of action research in comparing with many other ‘research methods ‘ is that information analysis is frequently done collaboratively with the organisation, group of people or community involved. This is to guarantee the intimacy of consequences to the organization/group/community in inquiry. At the same clip, the analysis needs to carry through the ‘academic demands ‘ , therefore frequently including both linguistic communication and tools non known to ‘laypeople ‘ . Therefore, it is of import to add transparence and interlingual rendition of the analysis of the informations to the purpose of intercessions planned and action planning ( 2008:202 ) In this survey, informations based on observation was collected through the usage of elaborate field notes which provided a running history of what happened throughout the procedure and informations based on experience was collected as personal notes in the signifier of a diary which included notes to myself and a record of my contemplations, my feelings and reactions, ego uncertainties and inquiries, choler and defeats, and delectations. Throughout the survey I was punctilious in roll uping and updating the field notes and my diary. Records of meetings and informal interviews and treatments with participants and other stakeholders, every bit good as the emerging directors ‘ personal development diaries entering their phases of development provided extra collaborative beginnings of informations. Each of the informations aggregation methods used in this research undertaking could be considered portion of an overall attack to bettering the quality and cogency of the research informations through an attack known as informations triangulation. This would besides counter the possibility of low dependability. How to cite Potential Of Educational Standards Education Essay, Essay examples

Antibody Technology and Cell Culture

Question: In your essay you should discuss; The development of the antibody. How was it made, is it a humanized, chimeric or human antibody. As these antibodies should all be monoclonals I would expect a brief overview of how monoclonal antibodies are produced. A brief mention of the company who produce the antibody, are they a big biopharmaceutical company? The uses of the antibody. Is it just used for one particular disease? If not what are the other diseases or conditions it is used for and why is it able to treat more than one condition? What are the mechanisms of action of this antibody? How does it work, what are the pathways that the antibody works on? You should also consider how effective the antibody is as a drug and you could mention the extent of its current usage. Answer: The antibody or also known as immunoglobulin is a type of protein produced by the plasma cells of the human body. It is one of the major components of the human immune system. In recent years, antibodies are widely used in the clinical domain for various diseases. Target therapy for cancer treatment is one of the most notable examples of these sorts of therapeutic application (Barouch et al. 2013). Other applications include antibody-drug conjugates that are also used for various purposes. Apart from this, antibodies are used in disease diagnosis, monoclonal antibody therapy, Prenatal treatment, etc. Antibodies are used widely in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, multiple sclerosis, colorectal cancer, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, head and neck cancer and breast cancer. It is also used in many immune deficiency diseases such as hypogammaglobulinemia, X-linked agammaglobulinemia by introducing antibodies into the body (Bernard et al. 2013). One of the significant aspect of m onoclonal antibody in recent years is the treatment of Ebola viruses and HIV viruses. The research process is still going on to develop and apply antibody therapy against these viruses as well (Jeong et al. 2012). Rheumatoid arthritis is a sort of autoimmune disease where a chronic and progressive inflammation occurs in the joints. It is a form of autoimmune disease. In this case, the cytokines produced by human body raise an immune response against its self-component. This reaction causes an inflammatory response in the joint areas of the human body. The result of this disease is deformity and immobility. Fingers, wrists, feet, and ankles are the most affected areas of rheumatoid arthritis. In the treatment procedure of rheumatoid arthritis, monoclonal antibodies are directed against the pathogenic autoimmune agent cytokine. Monoclonal antibodies are the a kind of monospecific antibodies produced by the immune cells of the human body. In various studies and researches, it is observed that, using mAbs rheumatoid arthritis utilized anti-CD7, anti-CD4 and CAMPATH-1H targets results in varying degrees of efficacy and significant safety concerns (Olinger et al. 2012). Monoclonal antibodies are also known as mAb. These sets of antibodies are monospecific which are produced by identical immune cells. Until 1975, it was possible to use a mixture of antibodies for therapeutic purposes. But in 1975 Cesar Milstein and George Kohler discovered monoclonal antibodies for the first time. Till then different technologies are used for the production of monoclonal antibodies (Ordas et al. 2012). The production of monoclonal antibodies includes the major steps as Hybridoma cell production, purification of monoclonal antibodies. These monoclonal antibodies are generally made through cell culture techniques. In this method, the primary aspect is to fuse myeloma cells alongside the spleen cells in a mouse that has already been immunized with the desired antigen (Scott, Walchok and old. 2012). In recent studies, rabbit B cells are also used to form rabbit hybridoma. In order to fuse the myeloma cells, polyethylene glycol is used. The selective culture medium employ ed in the production of monoclonal antibodies is called HAT medium. The name is Hat because it contains hypoxanthine, aminopterin, and thymidine. This medium is a selective medium and only helps to grow the fused hybridoma cells. Unfused myeloma cells cannot grow in this medium as they lack HGPRT. As a result, they cannot replicate their DNA. The mixture of cells is then diluted, and clones of these cells are made of the parent cells (Scott, Walchok and old. 2012). Antibodies that are secreted by the different clones are then assayed according to their ability to the antigen. ELISA method, also known as the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay or Antigen Microarray or immune dot-blot. After collecting the media or culture sample of hybridomas, it is important to extract the desired monoclonal antibodies. During the purification procedure, at first, it is important to condition the sample. Cells, lipids, cell debris, clotted material are removed (Li et al. 2012). This is done through th e use of centrifugation. After centrifugation filtration of the sample is done with a 0.45 m filter. After this, the sample is condensed. This process is very much important because it will increase the concentration of the monoclonal antibodies in the liquid suspension. After this, most of the charged particles and other impurities like transferring can be removed by respective chromatography techniques (Scott, Walchok and old. 2012). There are several other techniques used for the production of antibody heterogenicity, recombinant, chimeric antibodies, fully human clonal antibodies, etc. A recombinant aspect of the monoclonal antibodies include properties such as cloning, phage display or yeast display. Recombinant engineering of antibodies involves the uses of viruses and yeasts. This technique mainly depends on the rapid cloning of immunoglobulin gene segments. Through this method library of antibodies are created. Chimeric antibodies are actually partially mouse and partly human monoclonal antibodies. In modern therapeutic approaches, Chimeric antibodies are widely used. Fully human monoclonal antibodies are produced in transgenic mice. Till now, 7 to 9 fully human monoclonal antibodies have been successfully introduced for the therapeutic uses (Scott, Allison, and Wolchok, 2012). One of the widely used therapeutic antibody used in clinical applications is Infliximab. It is a chimeric form of IgG1 mAb containing human constant regions along with murine variable regions (Birch, 2012). The main problem with this antibody is that it is only available in an intravenous form and should be applied along with the combination of methotrexate (Cheung et al. 2012). The initial dosage of this combination is 3 mg/kg and with respect to certain patient's condition, the dosage can increase to 10 mg/kg with an interval of 4 to 8 weeks. This particular antibody is approved by the FDA/EMA in combination with MTX for moderate and severe rheumatoid arthritis. This drug was first evaluated by Elliott et al. In 1993. The primary cause of the rheumatoid arthritis is a cytokine secreted name TNF , a kind of tumor necrosis factor. Infliximab neutralizes the activity of this tumor necrosis factor or TNF through binding. The binding procedure is a property of high affinity. The TNF b ecomes a soluble and transmembrane form. This whole process inhibits the binding of TNF with its respective receptor present in the body. It should be kept in mind that, Infliximab does not neutralize the TNFb or also known as the lymphotoxin a. . It is generally activated by inducing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The event of leukocytes migrating and activating neutrophils are also a concerning event. Neutralization of TNF reduces the overall inflammatory action caused by rheumatoid arthritis (Kantarjian et al. 2012). Another drug that is widely used in clinical applications is Golimumab. Golimumab is complex human recombinant IgG1 mAb. It contains no murine components. Golimumab is produced by the phage display technology. The drug form of the antibody was approved by the FDA/EMA in the year of 2009. It is widely used for the moderate and severe level of rheumatoid arthritis. The drug is mainly used as the monotherapy. Sometimes it is also used as a combinational form with some disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs also known as DMARDs (Dinh et al. 2012). The most important aspect of its clinical aspect is that it is found in subcutaneous form as well. The standard dosage for this drug is about 40mg in every two weeks. Golimumab binds to the Tumor Necrosis factor or TNF . . As mentioned earlier that Golimumab is a human monoclonal antibody, it binds to the TNF and inhibits soluble and transmembrane human TNF . After binding, inhibition of TNF prevents the binding of it respective receptor (Sta nker et al. 2013). This phenomenon prevents the both leukocytes infiltration prevents the cell adhesion proteins such as E-selectin, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1. Another aspect of this drug is that it also prevents the adhesion of pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion such as IL-8, IL-6, G-CSF and GM-CSF in vitro. The patients who are suffering from chronic inflammatory conditions, application of Golimumab reduces the amount of ICAM-1 and IL-6. It also reduces the amount of C-reactive protein also known as CRP., matrix metalloproteinase 3 also known as (MMP-3) and vascular endothelial growth factors known as VEGF (Sandborn et al. 2014). In modern times. Antibodies are one of the most prosperous and efficient methods for many therapeutic approaches. Monoclonal antibodies are broadly used in cancer therapies. Several other monoclonal antibodies with a combination of other substances are currently in phase 1 and phase 2 of clinical trials. Monoclonal antibody therapy can also be used by antibody fragments (Kolorz et al. 2013). The large size and long half-life of a full-length antibody make them inappropriate component for radioimmunotherapy (Nievves et al. 2012). As a result, Many research processes are carried out to produce some monoclonal antibodies, Diabody and Nanobodies (sdAbs) including scFv, which consist smaller size and consistent long life of the binding activity. Immunotoxins and Immunocytokines are also comprised of toxin and cytokines, which are fused to smaller antibody fragments. In different cancer therapy. Target therapy, monoclonal antibodies are widely used which produces an enormous prospect for f uture applications (Raison et al. 2013). References Barouch, D.H., Whitney, J.B., Moldt, B., Klein, F., Oliveira, T.Y., Liu, J., Stephenson, K.E., Chang, H.W., Shekhar, K., Gupta, S. and Nkolola, J.P., 2013. Therapeutic efficacy of potent neutralizing HIV-1-specific monoclonal antibodies in SHIV-infected rhesus monkeys.Nature,503(7475), pp.224-228. Bernard, A., Boumsell, L., Dausset, J., Milstein, C. and Schlossman, S.F. eds., 2013.Leucocyte Typing: Human Leucocyte Differentiation Antigens Detected by Monoclonal Antibodies. Specification-Classification-Nomenclature/Typage leucocytaire Antigenes de differenciation leucocytaire humains reveles par lesanticorps monoclonaux: Rapports des etudes com. Springer Science Business Media. Birch, J.R., 2012. THE LARGE SCALE CULTIVATION 0F HYBRIDOMA CELLS PRODUCING MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES.Large-scale mammalian cell culture,1, p.1. Cheung, W.C., Beausoleil, S.A., Zhang, X., Sato, S., Schieferl, S.M., Wieler, J.S., Beaudet, J.G., Ramenani, R.K., Popova, L., Comb, M.J. and Rush, J., 2012. A proteomics approach for the identification and cloning of monoclonal antibodies from serum.Nature biotechnology,30(5), pp.447-452. Dinh, T.N., Kyaw, T.S., Kanellakis, P., To, K., Tipping, P., Toh, B.H., Bobik, A. and Agrotis, A., 2012. Cytokine Therapy With Interleukin-2/AntiInterleukin-2 Monoclonal Antibody Complexes Expands CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ Regulatory T Cells and Attenuates Development and Progression of Atherosclerosis.Circulation,126(10), pp.1256-1266. Jeong, J.S., Jiang, L., Albino, E., Marrero, J., Rho, H.S., Hu, J., Hu, S., Vera, C., Bayron-Poueymiroy, D., Rivera-Pacheco, Z.A. and Ramos, L., 2012. Rapid identification of monospecific monoclonal antibodies using a human proteome microarray.Molecular Cellular Proteomics,11(6), pp.O111-016253. Kantarjian, H., Thomas, D., Wayne, A.S. and O'Brien, S., 2012. Monoclonal antibody-based therapies: a new dawn in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia.Journal of Clinical Oncology,30(31), pp.3876-3883. Kolorz, M., Wroblova, K., Mokranova, J., Bartosova, L., Dite, P., ZboÃ…â„ ¢il, V. and Bartos, M., 2013. Pharmacogenomics of infliximab therapy, impact of TNFRSF1A and TNFRSF1B gene polymorphisms. Li, H., Ortiz, R., Tran, L., Hall, M., Spahr, C., Walker, K., Laudemann, J., Miller, S., Salimi-Moosavi, H. and Lee, J.W., 2012. General LC-MS/MS method approach to quantify therapeutic monoclonal antibodies using a common whole antibody internal standard with application to preclinical studies.Analytical chemistry,84(3), pp.1267-1273. Nieves, A., Ortega, B., Martinez, M., Castejon, O., Lares, M. and Ferrer, E., 2012. Standardization of ELISA technique for the immunological diagnosis of human toxocariasis.Boletn de Malariologa y Salud Ambiental,52(1), pp.21-32. Olinger, G.G., Pettitt, J., Kim, D., Working, C., Bohorov, O., Bratcher, B., Hiatt, E., Hume, S.D., Johnson, A.K., Morton, J. and Pauly, M., 2012. Delayed treatment of Ebola virus infection with plant-derived monoclonal antibodies provides protection in rhesus macaques.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,109(44), pp.18030-18035. Ords, I., Mould, D.R., Feagan, B.G. and Sandborn, W.J., 2012. Antià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ TNF monoclonal antibodies in inflammatory bowel disease: pharmacokineticsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ based dosing paradigms.Clinical Pharmacology Therapeutics,91(4), pp.635-646. Raison, C.L., Rutherford, R.E., Woolwine, B.J., Shuo, C., Schettler, P., Drake, D.F., Haroon, E. and Miller, A.H., 2013. A randomized controlled trial of the tumor necrosis factor antagonist infliximab for treatment-resistant depression: the role of baseline inflammatory biomarkers.JAMA psychiatry,70(1), pp.31-41. Sandborn, W.J., Feagan, B.G., Marano, C., Zhang, H., Strauss, R., Johanns, J., Adedokun, O.J., Guzzo, C., Colombel, J.F., Reinisch, W. and Gibson, P.R., 2014. Subcutaneous golimumab induces clinical response and remission in patients with moderate-to-severe ulcerative colitis.Gastroenterology,146(1), pp.85-95. Sandborn, W.J., Feagan, B.G., Marano, C., Zhang, H., Strauss, R., Johanns, J., Adedokun, O.J., Guzzo, C., Colombel, J.F., Reinisch, W. and Gibson, P.R., 2014. Gastroenterology,146(1), pp.96-109. Scott, A.M., Allison, J.P. and Wolchok, J.D., 2012. Monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy.Cancer Immunity Archive,12(1), p.14. Scott, A.M., Wolchok, J.D. and Old, L.J., 2012. Antibody therapy of cancer.Nature Reviews Cancer,12(4), pp.278-287. Stanker, L.H., Scotcher, M.C., Cheng, L., Ching, K., McGarvey, J., Hodge, D. and Hnasko, R., 2013. A monoclonal antibody based capture ELISA for botulinum neurotoxin serotype B: toxin detection in food.Toxins,5(11), pp.2212-2226.